Emergencies in cold regions

Chapter 2
Emergencies in cold regions

2.1 Climatic data
Winter freeze-ups affect water supply and sanitation options, logistics, construction techniques
and the health of the population. Even people’s attitudes to work are adversely
affected by the cold. To increase the effectiveness of aid provision, therefore, it is essential to
obtain reliable climatic data. Basic climate information should include answers to the
following questions:
About the winter

• 􀂄 When does the winter period start and finish?
• 􀂄 Are temperatures below freezing at night only or also during the day?
• 􀂄 What are the average daytime and night-time temperatures in winter?
• 􀂄 What is the minimum temperature likely to be?
• 􀂄 How much snow can be expected and at what time of year?

About the summer

• 􀂄 When does the summer period start and finish?
• 􀂄 Is there a period when there will not be a frost, even at night?
• 􀂄 What are the average day-time and night-time summer temperatures?

Also

• 􀂄 How much precipitation falls as rain? When?
• 􀂄 How many hours of daylight and darkness are there in the summer and how many in the winter?
  

Apart from talking to local people, climatic information is available from local meteorological
stations (at airports or military establishments), media companies (TV, radio or
newspaper), or on the Internet.
Monthly temperature and precipitation data for many cities around the world are given in The
World Weather Guide.1

2.2 Emergency environments
It is worth considering how the winterised emergency differs from those that happen in
warmer areas. Not only are the required technologies and approaches different, but also
people living in one environment find it difficult to move to another. This was true of the
Kurds who fled into the mountains of Northern Iraq in 1991, and who then suffered greatly,
partly because they were used to living lower down on the plains.

Cold regions
If the definition of a cold region is taken to be an area where the average (mean) temperature
is below 1°C for more than one month of each year, then over 1 billion people live in such an
area.2 For the purposes of this book ‘cold regions’ include anywhere where the temperature is
likely to fall below 0°C for long enough to have an adverse effect on water supply or
sanitation.

Urban and rural locations
Appropriate emergency watsan interventions vary, of course, depending on whether the
affected population is in a rural or urban location, for example, or whether they are living in
a temporary camp or mainly in houses as most Kosovar refugees did in Albania in 1999. The
main differences between the urban and rural cases will be differences in the levels of
technology used, although other factors include the more variable standard of education and
the effects of seasonal work on community participation in rural areas.
In an urban setting repairing existing water supply and sewerage networks is the main
priority in order to minimise further deterioration. These systems require the knowledge of
experienced engineers. By repairing such systems large numbers of people quickly receive
the benefits of clean water and sanitary conditions, reducing the associated health risks. As a
guide only, some measures appropriate for the renovation of an urban sewerage system are
included in Chapter 4. Methods of plumbing in collective centres and hospitals are discussed
in Chapter 3.
In urban areas, aid agencies often find themselves repairing local facilities: fixing doors,
windows, floors, and so on. Local people are often unable to obtain construction materials
for financial, logistical or political reasons.3
In rural locations, or camps, the emphasis of watsan provision is on the development of new
sources of water, and setting up new sanitation systems. However, in many countries even
small villages are likely to have systems that could, and should, be renovated if at all
possible.
Levels of development in different regions of the same country, or in different countries are
often highly variable. This is even more confusing in countries in colder regions, many of
which were highly developed prior to any disaster. For example, cities in the former Soviet
Union countries or eastern Europe have almost certainly had working water supply, sewerage, gas and electricity systems in the past, but in some of these areas regional disaster has
greatly reduced the local level of development. Many rural and urban areas within the former
Soviet Union countries, central Asia or eastern Europe could now be considered as underdeveloped,
regardless of their previous level of development.

Mountain locations and climate
In addition to areas where the predominant climate is cool temperate or cold, cold regions
must also include mountainous areas. Altitude causes a reduction in the ambient temperature.
A fall in temperature of between 1.5°C (in moist air) and 3°C (in very dry air) should be
expected for every 300m of altitude gained.4 In addition, mountainous areas are often very
exposed, so people forced to move through or live in those areas also suffer because of the
rapid loss of body heat due to the cooling effect of winds. The wind-chill effect causes the
apparent temperature to be less than the true temperature.
The ability of a displaced population to survive in the mountains is greatly hindered if they
are not used to living in such conditions. This happened in Northern Iraq after the Gulf War in
1991, when some Kurdish refugees originated from mountainous areas, but many others had
fled to the mountains from much warmer areas, and suffered greatly as a result.
In the mountains the positioning of water supply distribution points, latrines and any other
facilities must take into account not only their location, but the location of areas where
people will have to queue. This is partly to minimise the time people take to walk to the
facilities in the cold, but also to take care that people are not forced to cross steep or loose
areas of mountainside to get there. Areas for distribution should also be organised carefully
to minimise the risks from exposure and physical harm.

2.3 Winterisation studies
At the start of any emergency, a rapid assessment of the situation is made, leading to a plan of
action. Planning for the next season is an important activity throughout the year. In cold regions
this planning aspect needs to be repeated annually in preparation for each oncoming winter.
Winterisation studies should be done in the summer, to allow sufficient time to implement
measures necessary to prepare for winter. The aims of such studies are, firstly, to predict the
factors that will (or could) affect the provision of aid during the winter period and, secondly,
to determine what can be done by way of preparation to overcome the difficulties.
Likely issues include:
Shelter

• 􀂄 Are the current shelter options going to beadequate in winter, or not?
• 􀂄 What general shelter improvements can be made – provision, upgrading and repairs?
• 􀂄 How well is the area drained? What will happen to the groundwater level?
• 􀂄 How will heating be provided?

Water supply and sanitation (watsan)

• 􀂄 Which systems are at risk of freezing, what damage will result if they do freeze, and what can be done to protect those systems? To what depth will the ground freeze?
• 􀂄 Are there social reasons for changing water supply or sanitation practices in the winter (e.g. toilets are too cold or too far away from accomodation and people will not use them; washing water needs heating)?
• 􀂄 Is it possible to construct new facilities in winter? By what date should projects be completed?
• 􀂄 How will the cold affect the maintenance of watsan facilities (e.g. more work may be necessary to drain distribution pipes; cold weather may make workers less inclined to work)?
• 􀂄 Is it possible to collect solid waste from all areas in winter?

Logistics

• 􀂄 What areas are likely to be completely cut off by the weather, and what areas are likely to
• be difficult to reach?
• 􀂄 Which items should be stockpiled, (e.g. food, fuel, blankets, warm clothing, shelter
• materials, or bags to contain wastes)? Is extra warehousing necessary, and is it possible to
• provide it?
• 􀂄 How will winter weather (e.g. snow or icy roads) affect access to disaster-affected areas,
• and what effect will any lack of access have on current systems, such as hauled water?

Physical threats

• 􀂄 What risks of flooding exist, including from snowmelt in the spring?
• 􀂄 Is there a risk from landslides or avalanches?

Human issues

• 􀂄 How will adverse weather affect local people’s attitudes? For example people may show
• less motivation to work in cold weather, or may become so preoccupied with money,
• food, shelter and warmth that water supply and sanitation become a very low priority.
• 􀂄 What winter-related health problems are likely (e.g. respiratory diseases)?
• 􀂄 What can be done to minimise these health problems?
• 􀂄 What can be done to help the most vulnerable members of the community, such as older
• people and young children?

2.4 Appropriate technology for cold regions
Water supply technology
Equipment from donor agencies, although well tried and tested in Africa, is not always
suitable for use in colder countries. Oxfam storage tanks , for example, have had problems
with both water freezing over (tank liners could easily be damaged by ice forming on the
water’s surface) and roofs collapsing under a snow load. Problems have been overcome, in
some instances, by erecting the tanks indoors. The other main difficulties arise when
distribution networks freeze: ice forming in pipes and valves is liable to damage them.

The technology used for an emergency water supply in the tropics is not always suitable for
the winter in central Asia, in which case it is necessary to use technology and techniques that
are specifically designed for use in cold regions. Examples of the use of effective technology
include insulating water tanks, burying pipes, and designing water treatment processes that
take into account slower rates of reactions and the higher viscosity of water at lower
temperatures. Water supply matters are discussed in more detail in Chapter 3.
Environmental sanitation technology
As in warmer climates, sanitation options always need to be considered in the context of
cultural and religious acceptability, however cooler temperatures do affect the range of
technologies that it is possible to use. The actions of pit latrines and septic tanks are impeded
by cold temperatures. However technology that is used in everyday life in, for example,
Alaska can be successfully adapted for use in humanitarian aid programmes following
disasters in cold regions.
The rates of biological reactions, which are critical to the decomposition processes that are
used to treat excreta and wastewater, are greatly reduced at low temperatures. In some areas
excreta has to be stored throughout the winter, until ambient temperatures are sufficient for
treatment processes. In other cases, emptying on-site excreta disposal facilities more frequently
and more reliably than in warm climates can solve the problem. Excreta disposal
technology and other sanitation issues are discussed more thoroughly in Chapter 4.


dari : www.who.or.id

Water for Village in Sanan (2)

1. Design

a. System (Water-Net sytem)

This clean water-net system plan is using two different systems, well-suited with the topography condition in the area and community population which will be served by the system.

v Area of RT 06 and RT 07 including Segoroyoso

	Well

Picture 1

Water-Net Distribution System RT 06 and RT 07

Including Segoroyoso Sanan, Bawuran

Water will be pump by using P1 pump into R2 water reservoir. From R2 water reservoir water will directly distributed by using P2 pump into R1 water reservoir for being distributed for 19 households plus 71 households for RT 07 and Segoroyoso, half of the water will be pump into the same pump into the same R3 water reservoir for being distributed for 19 households.

The water distribution control into R1 or R3 water reservoir will be done by using tap which putting on pipes to R3 water reservoir (Lower than R1 water reservoir). This system planned by using software water-net and already has been tried. The result is that the water succeeds to be distributed equally for the community and they don not have to queue in getting water for their daily need in public well where the location is enough far from their house. The need of water for the family and their cattle are already sufficient and each community could get the water directly from the water reservoir. There are some efforts that have to be done to make the system become perfect:

· Make new well with the depth more or less is 15 m which aimed to enlarging reservoir volume

· Replace water reservoir with permanent structure by using framed concrete structure.

· Enlarging water pump capacity into 1 liter/second and the equipment.

· Enlarging existing booster pump for 1 liter/second and the equipment.

· To round off power supply network system for all water pump into secure condition.

· To round off pipe network into secure condition (under ground).

· Install chlorination unit to purify water before distributed to the community.

· Installment of water meter, tank / water storage for each household.

· Capacity building unit organization user of safe water beneficial user.

v For area RT 03, RT 04, and RT 05

Picture 2

Water-Net Distribution Plan System RT 03, RT 04, and RT 05 Sanan, Bawuran

Water will be pumped from the deep well with around 100 meter depth in the village land, then by using submerge pump water P3 will be pumped out into reservoir R4. From this reservoir R4 some water will be pumped into reservoir R5 to fulfill 42 household and some more will be pumped out into reservoir R6 to be directly distributed for 31 household. RT 03 community for 25 household will be distributed water from reservoir R7 which supplied by reservoir R6.

The program will cover for arranging deep well, water pump, distribution network including pipe, reservoir, creating water management organization, training for water source management and hygiene promotion.

b. Detail Measurement

v Water needs

Water need by one man in one day is 100 liter/man/day. For each household, it is assumpted in 1 household consist of 5 members.

Water needed for one household in one day :

= 100 liter/person/day x 5 person

= 500 liter/day

Tabel 2

The need of Water in RT

Are	Number of Population 2007 (person)	Number of Population 2012 (person)	The need (liter/day)
RT 03 RT 04 RT 05 RT 06 RT 07 and Segoroyoso	125 210 155 190 355	129 216 159 195 364	12900 21600 15900 19500 36400

v Building Dimension and Facility

· For area RT 06 and RT 07 including Segoroyoso

In this area is planned using 3 reservoir, such as R1 reservoir, R2 reservoir, and R3 reservoir which is each of the reservoir will served the need of water for different community.

Tabel 3

The Need of Water which Served by Reservoir for RT 06 and RT 07

Including Segoroyoso

Area	Reservoir	Number of Households	Need (l/d)
RT 06 RT 07 and Segoroyoso	R2 R3 R1	- 19 90	- 9750 46150

Reservoir dimension which will be design will suit the need of water volume which will be served. Because of R2 reservoir is serving 2 reservoirs, such as R1 reservoir and R2 reservoir, so that the dimension from R1 reservoir must be larger than other reservoir.

· For Reservoir R2

Reservoir dimension using 3 x 2 x 2 m = 12 m³

· For Reservoir R3

Reservoir dimension using 2 x 2 x 1 m = 4 m³

· For Reservoir R1

Reservoir dimension using 2 x 2 x 2 m = 8 m³

· For area RT 03, RT 04, and RT 05

There were planned 4 reservoirs in this area: R4 reservoir, R5 reservoir, R6 reservoir, and R7 reservoir where each will serve different need of water for the community.

Tabel 4

The Need of Water which Served Reservoir for RT 03, RT 04, and RT 05

Area	Reservoir	Number of Households	Need (l/d)
RT 04 RT 05 RT 03	R4 R5 R6 R7	21 21 31 25	10800 10800 15900 12900

Reservoir dimension which will be designed will suitable with the need of water volume that will be served. Because of R4 reservoir served 3 reservoirs which are R5 reservoir, R6 reservoir and R7 reservoir, so then the dimension from R4 reservoir have to be larger than other reservoir.

· For reservoir R4

Reservoir dimension using 4 x 3 x 2 m = 24 m³

· For reservoir R5

Reservoir dimension using 2 x 2 x 2 m = 8 m³

· For reservoir R6

Reservoir dimension using 3 x 2 x 2 m = 12 m³

· For reservoir R7

Reservoir dimension using 3 x 2 x 2 m = 12 m³

2. Social Activity

a. Management Organization

Clean water-net system management will be handled directly by the community.

b. Training for Implementation and Maintenance

By improving the ability of the community management to ménage the water together so that could develop, operate, maintain the water-net system installation which will be established so that the water-net system could be develop and could fulfill the community’s need of clean water.

Water for Village in Sanan (1)

1. Existing Condition

Posting the earthquake disaster almost all community’s well in Sanan Sub-Village became dry. Before the earthquake, some of the community’s wells still could be used for daily need especially in dry season. Nowadays, posting the earthquake disaster and in dry area above Sanan Sub-Village got lack of water because of the depth of the well which is very deep and the lack of groundwater surface so then community have problems in getting the water to fulfill their daily need.

Half of the community who live on higher area compote their need of clean water for family and cattle by taking water from dug well that prepared for the community for about 1 km from the community house down the village and community have to queue to get the water.

Due to water as the main factor in human live while community are hardly in getting the need of clean water, so then community have a strong willingness to have a communal water supply system that can be dependable and sustainable to be conducted together.

2. Data and data preparation

a. Assessment

Sanan Sub-Village located in Bawuran Village, Pleret Sub-District, Bantul District, Yogyakarta which constituted as higher area and hill. The land condition mostly consists of clay and soft rock. The main road which is linking between sub-village and village is elastic street among the community house is still usual footpath. Dry and rainy seasons are not very influence dominantly for the community. In relation with the water source fluctuation, season changeover is not giving significant influence about the raise and the low the ground water surface. The use of land is mostly only for houses.

Tabel 1

Number of Community in Each Household

Area	Number of Household (2007)	Number of person (2007)	Number of person (2012)
RT 03 RT 04 RT 05 RT 06 RT 07 and Segoroyoso	25 KK 42 KK 31 KK 38 KK 71 KK	125 210 155 190 355	129 216 159 195 364

The community growth based on Balai Pustaka Statistik (BPS) Bantul community are raising 0,5% in each year. The community density is still lower with the ration which is larger between community population which is small and area which is wider. Community livelihoods are mostly in cattle sector and small medium enterprise. Cattle sector is mostly become the main sector where cow as the main source. On the other hand, there only few small industries which is running in sector furniture.

2. Survey and Survey Result Analysis.

v Topography Survey

Topography in Sanan Sub-Village dominated with slant between 8 – 9 %. The highest location is on 60 m viewing from Zero point where the location is planning to be building the well, while fisiography surface land condition is abrupt. From Topography survey coordinates and elevation data is collected and applied in Water Net program to get availability of water network. This Water Net program running is in progress.

v Geography Survey

Generally, condition of geography in Sanan Sub-Village are consists of clay with white soft rock. The groundwater is on 15 – 20 m depth. The groundwater quality is rather clean, not smelly, yet only in rainy season the well become turbid because the land already contaminated.

v Mapping of Dug Well and Drill Well.

Mapping of dug well and drill well that already exist and plotting of the water source location. Deep well location is determined according to properties available and water table depth. Water location is surveyed by geo-electric method for some location available. Deep well will be bored about 100m depth. Dug well is dug about 15 m depth.

v Geophysics Survey

The work consists of geophysics survey, sounding Schlumberger geo electricity methods. The measurement minimal is 8 points with the length of electrodes is 200 – 250 m by using Mc Ohm meter utility mode 2115 digital and booster.

Survey result analysis of geo electricity is to get the depth of groundwater surface (skin deep, medium deep, and deep), groundwater temperature, groundwater conductivity in denomination Ohm-meter and other information/data which is needed to support the data so that it could be mapped in form of a groundwater depth map.

v Drilling (Pilot Hole, Wire Line Log, Reaming)

1. Drilling of Pilot Hole

The beginning drilling will be using diameter 6” with 100 m depth, it is done to find types of litology before doing the next step.

Utility:

a. Drilling Rig THS 5

b. Clay Pump NAS 5

c. Drill Rod 84 mm with 100 m long

d. Collar

e. Mata Bor Tricone dia 6”, Corel barel dia 6”

f. Chainblock, Pipe keys, Chain key and others equipment.

Material:

a. Bentonite

b. Gasoline (solar dan olie)

Analysis:

a. Take a sample from some rocks and analyzing the sample (description of the rocks) from each meter cutting.

b. Observe and noting each meter of drilling penetration.

c. Observe the thickness of clay drill.

2. Wire Line Log

After the pilot hole work done, there will be a drill hole geophysics testing which is usually called electrical logging. There will be 3 (three) method in electrical logging: Log Resistively, Spontaneous Potential, and Gamma Ray.

Equipment: Geologer OYO 2000

3. Reaming

From electrical logging data and litology description it will be made a deep well construction design plan (shop drawing) which is there will be drill hole enlargement diameter 12” until 81 m depth.

Equipment:

a. Drilling Rig THS 5

b. Clay Pump NAS 5

c. Drill Rod 84 mm with length 100 m

d. Collar

e. Eye drill Tricone dia 12”, Corel barel dia 12”

f. Chainblock, Pipe keys, Chain keys, and others equipment.

Material:

a. Bentonite

b. Gasoline (solar dan olie)

v Deep Well Construction.

Well construction’s planned with 100 m depth; consist of GIP pipes with diameter 6” with length 42 m, GIP pipes with diameter 4” with length 15 m.

For gravel pack it is using gravel with size between 5 – 7 mm until the depth is below the water aquifer which is used by the community.

Equipment:

a. Drilling Rig

b. Las Machine

c. Saw, Hammer, Pipe keys, and others equipment.

Material which will be put:

a. GIP Pipe diameter 6” with length 42 meter

b. GIP Pipes diameter 4” with length 24 meter

c. Screen stainless steel pipes diameter 4” with length 15 meter

d. Gravel with size 5 – 7 mm

v Cleaning Deep Well

After the construction work is done, the next step is cleaning deep well. This work will be done by doing water jetting until the well truly clean from sludge.

Methods:

a. Water Jetting will be done by put ting clean water into the well by using high pressure pump through conductor pipes

b. High Velocity Jetting/Air Jetting will be done by putting high pressure air into the well by using a compressor through conductor pipe.

c. Time in doing the work is 1 x 12 hours.

Equipment:

a. Compressor with capacity is 12 atm

b. High pressure air pump

c. Pipa tiup dia 1,5” with length 80 meter

d. High pressure lapse

e. Others equipment

Material:

a. Solar, oil, stenvet

b. Sodium Tri Poly Phosphate (STPP)

v Pumping Test

This work is aimed to know the capacity types of the well and the well efficiency.

Pumping test will be done in two ways:

- Step draw down test within 2 x 4 hour

- Long period test within 1 x 24 jam

Equipment:

a. Submersible Pump

b. Conductor Pipe

c. Genset/Electricity and Electricity Panel

d. V-Notch

e. Tap

f. Sounding, meteran, Clock

g. Pipe Keys, tanggem

h. Stationary

i. Others equipment

Analyzing:

a. Observe and noting lowing of water surface

b. Observe and noting relapsing the surface water.

c. Counting the optimum debit capacity and maximum well based on the data